What is the concentric circle model?

In 1925, Burgess proposed a descriptive urban land use model that divided cities into concentric circles expanding from downtown to the suburbs. This representation was built from Burgess’s observations of several American cities, notably Chicago, for which he provided empirical evidence. The model assumes a relationship between the socio-economic status (mainly income) of households and the distance from the Central Business District (CBD). The further from the CBD, the better the quality of housing, but the longer the commuting time. Thus, accessing better housing is done at the expense of longer commuting times (and costs). According to this monocentric model, a large city is divided into six concentric zones:

• Zone I: Central Business District (called the “loop” in Chicago), where most of the tertiary employment is located and where the urban transport infrastructure converges, making this zone the most accessible.
• Zone II: Immediately adjacent to the CBD, a zone where many industrial activities locate to take advantage of nearby labor and markets. Further, most transport terminals, namely port sites, and railyards, are located adjacent to the central area.
• Zone III: This zone is gradually being reconverted to other uses by expanding manufacturing / industrial activities. It contains the poorest segment of the urban population, notably first-generation immigrants living in low-cost housing.
• Zone IV: Residential zone dominated by the working class and those who could move away from the previous zone (often second-generation immigrants). This zone has the advantage of being located near the major zones of employment (I and II) and thus represents a low-cost location for the working class.
• Zone V: Represents higher quality housing linked with longer commuting costs.
• Zone VI: Mainly high-class and expensive housing in rural, suburbanized settings, with the highest commuting costs. Before the mass diffusion of the automobile (in the 1930s), most of these settlements were located next to rail stations.

According to Burgess, urban growth is a process of expansion and reconversion of land uses, with a tendency for each inner zone to expand towards the outer zone. In the above figure, zone II (Factory zone) is expanding towards zone IV (Working class zone), creating a transition zone with the reconversion of land use. Although the Burgess model is simple and elegant, it has drawn criticisms:

• The model is too simple and limited in a historical and cultural urban context that prevailed up to the 1950s. It is a product of its time.
• The model was developed when American cities were growing very fast in demographic terms, and when motorized transportation was still uncommon, most people used public transit. The expansion thus involved the reconversion of existing land uses. This concept cannot be applied effectively in a contemporary (from the second half to the 20th century) context where highways have enabled urban development to escape the reconversion process and take place directly in the suburbs.
• The model was developed for American cities and had limited applicability elsewhere. It has been demonstrated that pre-industrial cities, notably in Europe, did not follow the concentric circles model. For instance, in most pre-industrial European cities, the center was much more important than the periphery, notably in terms of social status. The Burgess concentric model is consequently partially inverted.
• There were many spatial differences in terms of ethnic, social, and occupational status, while there was a low occurrence of functional differences in land use patterns. The concentric model assumed a spatial separation of workplace and place of residence, which was not generalized until later in the twentieth century.

However, the Burgess model remains useful as a concept explaining concentric urban development, as a way to introduce the complexity of urban land use, and to explain urban growth in American cities in the early-mid 20th century.

With over 1.35 billion speakers, including 350 million native speakers, English is a truly global language. It is used worldwide as the means of communication in business, science and technology, social interaction, and many more areas. However, this wasn’t always the case. It took centuries for English to spread around the world, influenced by various events and contact with different groups of people.

The expansion of English

Kachru’s three concentric circles model provides a way of looking at this expansion. The model consists of three circles: the inner circle, the outer circle, and the expanding circle. English has different uses in different countries and each ‘circle’ refers to a group of countries in which English has a similar level of importance.

We can group the way in which people use the English language into three distinct categories:

• English as a native language (English is spoken as the mother tongue by the majority)
• English as a second language (People speak a different native language, but English is used in the country and internationally)
• English as a foreign language (English is only used for international communication)

The importance of English in both official contexts and everyday life differs for countries in each category. This depends on a variety of factors including historical factors such as British colonial relations and the development of technology during the Industrial Revolution. Plenty of other factors, such as the emergence of the USA as an economic, political, and cultural power, have also had a significant impact on the spread of English.

Fig. 1 - English is recognised as an official language in 67 countries and is used in different capacities in many more.

World Englishes

The global spread of English has led to the development of many different varieties of English, such as ‘Canadian English’ and ‘Indian English’, which have developed to meet the linguistic needs of those populations. These varieties of English (called ‘World Englishes’) are slightly different from each other in word choice, grammar, semantics etc. yet they can all be understood by English speakers.

Examples of World Englishes include:

• American English
• 'Singlish' (Singaporean English)
• British English
• Caribbean English
• 'Hinglish' (Hindi English)
• Irish English

There may be hundreds of World Englishes; however, as there is no set definition for what constitutes an official variety of a language it is not possible to state how many.

Braj Kachru (1932-2016) coined the term ‘World Englishes’ to refer to varieties of 'global' English. His ‘Three Concentric Circles model’ presents a way of viewing the spread of World Englishes.

The global spread of English

The global spread of English is often seen in two parts or ‘diasporas’ (ie. movement of a population).

The first English diaspora involved migration from English speakers from the UK to the ‘new world’ ie. present-day English speaking countries such as Canada, the USA, Australia, etc. English adapted in response to these new settings, influenced by factors such as contact with indigenous populations, which led to language change. These countries are now native speakers of English and make up the ‘inner circle’ of Kachru’s model (we’ll look at this further in a minute).

The second diaspora was the result of British colonisation, which brought English to parts of Africa, The Caribbean, Asia, and the South Pacific Islands. English was used in these territories for trade (including the slave trade) which led to the development of New Englishes (ie. varieties of English that are influenced by British/American English). British influence meant that English is still used in these places in social contexts, in education, and in official/legal contexts, to varying degrees.

Even more recently, English has continued to spread throughout world, becoming a key language in science, the economy, and popular culture. This is mainly due to the emergence of the USA as a political and economic power. English is also prevalent on the internet, with the majority of users using English online.

Kachru’s Model of World Englishes

Fig. 1 - Kachru's Three Concentric Circles Model.

As you can see, Kachru’s Three Concentric Circles diagram shows the three circles: the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle, and the Expanding Circle.

Kachru's concentric circles

Using the diagram above for reference, we'll now look at each circle in more depth:

Inner circle

The inner circle consists of countries that are traditional bases of English. This includes the UK, USA, Australia, New Zealand, and Anglophone Canada. These are countries that adopted English in the first diaspora and now use English as their official language. In these countries, English is the most dominant language and most of the population are native English-speakers.

These countries are considered to be ‘norm-providing’, meaning that they set the standards and traditions for the English language.

Outer circle

The Outer Circle consists of countries that have their own native language but English still holds importance in certain domains eg. in business, trade, or in social contexts. The outer circle consists of countries that adopted English in the second diaspora (ie. are former colonies of the British Empire). They include: India, Pakistan, the Philippines, Egypt, and a number of others.

These countries are considered to be ‘norm-developing’, meaning that they develop the norms set by inner circle countries even further.

Expanding Circle

The Expanding Circle consists of all the other countries in the world! Countries in the Expanding Circle speak their own native language and English does not hold that much importance in social, historical, or official contexts. Examples of countries in the outer circle include: China, Brazil, Russia, Japan, and many more.

In these countries, English is classed as a foreign language or ‘Lingua Franca’ (common language between non-native speakers). It is often learned in schools for communicating with countries in the inner and outer circles.

These countries are considered to be ‘norm-dependent’, meaning that they rely on the inner and outer circle to provide the norms for the English language. These countries generally do not develop their own forms of English.

Kachru’s 'Three Circles of English' summary

In summary, Kachru’s Three Concentric Circles model represents “the types of spread, patterns of acquisition, and the functional domains in which English is used across cultures and languages” (Kachru 1985). The three concentric circles consist of: the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle, and the Expanding Circle.

The Inner Circle consists of countries where English is traditionally the native language (eg. the UK, USA, Australia, etc). The Outer Circle consists of countries that have their own native language but English holds importance in certain contexts. These often have historical colonial relations with the British Empire (eg. India, Singapore, Pakistan). Finally, the Expanding Circle consists of countries where English does not hold much importance and is often learned as a foreign language (eg. China, Russia, Brazil).

Kachru’s 'Three Circle Model' limitations

Kachru’s model is a great way of understanding the global spread of English and has been influential among linguists. However, critics have identified several limitations.

It can be too simplistic

We live in a globalised world, meaning we can interact with people from different cultures who speak many different languages. People are no longer bound to the countries that they are born in or to the languages that they speak. A limitation of Kachru’s model is that it classifies people solely by where they live and historical factors, rather than the ways in which they use English. The model may therefore be too simplistic.

The status of English is changing in the 'Outer Circle'

English has been spoken by people in Outer Circle countries for almost 200 years, and some of these people even speak a variety of English as their first language in all areas of life. It can therefore be argued that these people are native speakers of English, despite living in an Outer Circle country. The model therefore doesn’t recognise the changing status of English in the Outer Circle.

The status of English is changing in the 'Expanding Circle'

The global status of the English language is changing as hundreds of varieties of English are emerging across the globe, some of which are now spoken as a first language. These varieties include the likes of ‘Chinglish’ (Chinese English) which has emerged from the expanding circle. These new varieties have their own characteristics and are constantly developing their own norms and standards. This suggests that these countries can no longer be seen by linguists as ‘norm-dependent’ and that the model is not as relevant in our modern world.

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