What is the main difference between personality psychology and social psychology quizlet?

social psychology

The study of how the immediate social context as well as broader cultural environments influence people's thoughts, feelings, and actions

Social psychology focuses on how the immediate environment changes our behavior. Personality psychology focuses on an individual's stable characteristics and their effects on behavior.

Whereas the social psychologist wants to understand why people act differently in different situations, the personality psychologist wants to understand why people act consistently across those situations.

Ex) An introverted person might be quieter on average across a range of situations (personality), but that person might abandon his reserved tendencies when at a party with friends or when interviewing for an important job (situation).

What is the difference between social psychology and personality psychology?

1. A fundamental need to belong and don't trusting relationships

2. To perceive ourselves and our groups positively

3. To understand the world and feel a sense of control over our actions and outcomes

Although context affects behavior, people also carry motivations that underlie their actions. What are some of these motivations?

Schemas

Impressions or mental representations that organize the information we know about a person

Ex) If someone attracts your attention by making a funny joke, you may think "good sense of humor" when you see that person

Two key dimensions most capture our attention

1. How warm or trustworthy the person is

(Allows us to quickly categorize others as friends or foes)

2. How competent the person is

(Allows us to gauge the person's status or competence in the social pecking order)

Our reactions to others are guided by these judgements. We look up to and depend on those who are both warm and competent. We fear those who are competent but lack warmth. We pity/feel protective towards those who are warm but incompetent. And we have disdain for people we see as lacking both of these qualities (homeless or drug addicts).

What do we care most about when forming impressions of others?

accurate

(This accuracy stems from a reliance on knowledge about what people are like on average plus some adjustments to account for a person's distinct characteristics. For this reason, our most accurate impressions are formed when we are motivated to pay attention to people's individual attributes).

Even thought impressions are made easily and automatically, they are often surprisingly

1. We are not always motivated to pay attention to people's individual characteristics. We tend to rely on quick heuristics (mental shortcuts) to make our impressions of people.

2. People have a tendency to engage in was we awe awawwwaaa was s wS saw eeEw away impression management to shape how other people view them.

Why aren't our impressions of people always accurate?

transference

A tendency to assume that a new and unfamiliar person has the same traits as another, known person whom he or she resembles in some way. A type of heuristic we use when forming judgments of new people.

Ex) you meet someone at college that reminds you of a high school friend and you suddenly shift all the positive feelings that you had towards your friend to this stranger

false consensus

The tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people's beliefs and attitudes are similar to our own. The heuristic that people are just like us. We tend to assume that people we know and like share our attitudes, beliefs, and opinions.

Ex) You are shocked and surprised when your friend posted a political comment online that conflicted with your own beliefs

impression management

A series of strategies that people use to influence the impressions that others form of them.

Most of us present a persona to mask characteristics we don't want others to see and we advertise the traits we want to be known for. When we meet new people, we use these strategies to shape how they view us.

attribution

Assignment of a causal explanation for an event, action or outcome.

Ex) When your best friend doesn't call or text you on your birthday, is it because she is busy with interviews and forgot or because she is holding a grudge from a recent argument?

The explanations we give for behavior vary, such as how stable or controllable those causes are. One of the most important dimensions is whether an event is due to a cause that is external to the person (my friend has a lot going on rn) or internal (my friend is angry and spiteful). Your own reaction will depend on which judgment you make.

fundamental attribution error

The tendency to assume that people's actions are more the result of their internal dispositions than of the situational context. This is the default mode of explanation in Western individualistic cultures.

Ex) A women is complaining about her seat on a flight and your immediate thought is that she's being selfish and unreasonable instead of considering possible external factors that could be causing her behavior.

When people stop to consider things external to the person that might be affecting their behavior. People must be motivated and have the cognitive resources to do this.

How do people override the fundamental attribution error?

No, cross cultural research reveals that people raised in collectivistic cultures where group harmony is valued over individual agency, are more sensitive to situational constraints.

Is the fundamental attribution error the universal default attribution?

another person's actions are very surprising or negative

Ex) Extreme and unusual events like the Parkland school shooting can inspire efforts to figure out why the shooter engaged in such a horrific act.

We are more likely to engage in more effortful and thoughtful attributions when

self-serving attributions

The attributions people make for their own behaviors or outcomes: We tend to make dispositional attributions for positive events but situational attributions for negative events

We find it hard to remain objective when it comes to perceiving our own behaviors and outcomes. We perceive our outcomes and actions in ways that benefit ourselves.

When we are explaining that something bad happened to us, we tend to believe that the factors in the situation played a strong role (The test was unfair). When we want to explain something good we have done, we tend to favor the internal and stable explanations (I am so smart).

affective forecasting error

People's inability to accurately predict the emotional reactions they will have to events

Our estimations of future happiness are not very accurate because we tend to focus on information that has little relevance on predicting our actual happiness and we have little awareness of how we can bounce back emotionally from negative outcomes.

attitude

An orientation toward some target stimulus that is composed of an affective feeling, a cognitive belief, and a behavioral motivation (such as a tendency to approach or avoid) toward the target.

Research suggests there is actually a weak link between our attitudes and our behavior. This is because sometimes our attitudes are about abstract topics (I feel positively about animal rights) whereas our behaviors are much more special (I wear leather shoes and belts).

However, our attitudes toward specific issues issues and situations we have directly experienced are more likely to predict our behavior.

Do our attitudes guide our actions?

implicit attitude

An automatically activated evaluation of a stimulus ranging from positive to negative. This fast and effortless system allows intuitive reactions and responding.

These are often learned through repeated exposure to a person, place etc.

Generally harder to change except with repeated exposure to a new association.

explicit attitude

The consciously reported evaluation a person has in response to a target stimuli. This slow acting system requires conscious attention and effort and allows rational and logical thought.

These can be shaped by our values, social norms and other beliefs. These can be readily updated by learning new information.

For example, you may have a negative association to the city of Tucson that reflects your experience and opinion of it, but you may also hold a more deliberative positive attitude about its merits that you consciously acknowledge and express.

How can people have different implicit and explicit attitudes for the same thing?

Explicit attitudes are the views we know and hold, while implicit attitudes are the associations we make automatically and often unconsciously

What is the difference between explicit and implicit attitudes?

elaboration likelihood method (ELM)

A theory of persuasion contending that attitudes can change by two different routes: a central route that focuses on the strength of the argument and a peripheral route that is sensitive to more superficial cues

When people use central route processing, they form a positive attitude when evidence is strong and a negative attitude when evidence is weak. This route relies on more thoughtful, reflective processes. Used for things that are personally important.

Ex) You choose a computer because it has all the qualities you want and has good reviews.

Peripheral route processing is based on surface level features and automatic associations. Used when the stakes are low or people are pressed for time

Ex) You choose a computer based on the brand or its look.

Either one can work, but attitudes formed or changed through the central route tend to last longer

Ex) Seeing a commercial can make you pick up the phone and order a pizza from the nearest chain, but only the best topping, crust and price will turn you into a loyal costumer

Which route, central or peripheral, lead people to change their attitudes?

central route

People who enjoy thinking deeply about issues are more likely to use ——— processing

compliance strategies

Method of persuasion used to change behavior more directly without targeting people's attitudes toward the product, idea, or message.

Ex) the door-in-face strategy works by eliciting a bit of guilt after people decline an unreasonably large request so they feel more open to a small one. You ask someone to buy 20 boxes of cookies and when they decline, they offer to buy one box.

Ex) the foot in door approach works because people who complied with an initial low cost request will be more likely to comply with a slightly higher cost request. You ask someone to sign a Girl Scouts petition and then ask them to buy a box of cookies.

Ex) the social proof principle works by showing people how involved others are. You show someone a list of others in the community who have bought Girl Scout cookies.

Ex) the scarcity principle works because people tend to place a higher value on things that are in short supply. Girl Scouts only sell cookies once per year.

cognitive dissonance

A sense of conflict between people's attitudes and actions that motivates efforts to restore cognitive consistency.

People have a fundamental need to maintain a coherent understanding of the world around them and of their own thoughts and actions. We usually try to avoid putting ourselves in situations that trigger a sense of ————-, but when we cannot avoid them or otherwise justify our actions, ——— can actually change our attitudes.

1. They change their behavior

2. They change their attitude toward their behavior

In what ways do people reduce cognitive dissonance?

1. When we are put in a situation where we feel that we have behaved in a way that we cannot attribute to the situation alone.

2. When we have to make a difficult choice (like where to go to college)

When are we most likely to feel dissonance?

post-decision dissonance

Dissonance that happens when we have to forgo an option that we have a positive attitude toward. To alleviate the dissonance, we may focus on the negative aspects of the option not chosen while praising the merits of the selected option.

effort justification

This can explain why people sometimes develop very positive attitudes towards activities that seem objectively aversive or require a great deal of effort. (Joining a frat involves expenses and hazing. If you believe that you have freely submitted yourself to this., it makes it seem better.)

Westerners feel dissonance when their actions are out of sync with their personal attitudes, but those with a more collectivist orientation feel dissonance when their actions are out of sync with the attitudes of important others.

What are some cultural caveats about dissonance?

Social norms

The patterns of behavior, traditions, and preferences that are tacitly sanctioned by a given culture or subculture and influence our behavior

conformity

The process by which people implicitly mimic, adopt, or internalize the behaviors of those around them

informational social influence

Pressure to conform to others' actions or beliefs based on a desire to behave correctly or gain an accurate understanding of the world

normative social influence

Pressure to conform to others' actions or beliefs in order to gain approval from others or avoid social sanctions

In a study, participants were asked to indicate which line was the same length as the standard line. When everyone else in the group replied with an answer that was obviously wrong, participants often conformed to the collective and also gave incorrect responses. This occurred about 1/3 of the time. This happens because people don't want to appear different.

However, If the participant was able to write down their answer anonymously, they almost always gave the right answer contrary to what others said. Also if one other person says the right answer or someone says a different wrong answer, the participant is more likely to say the right answer. This occurs because when people give different answers, it gives people the freedom to be different.

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

This explains why normally law abiding people get caught up in unlawful riots

Any role, including parent, student, friend, employee, gender, etc., comes with certain expectations and through conformity, people automatically mold their behavior to fit them.

Social roles we hold often provide clear social norms that guide our behavior. Explain.

social facilitation

An enhancement of the dominant behavioral response when performing a task in the mere presence of others; easy or well learned tasks are performed better, but difficult or novel tasks are performed worse

social loafing

The tendency did individuals to expend less effort on a task when they are doing it with others rather than alone. Occurs because being too anonymous as part of a group can impair performance.

Because people are most likely to engage in this when they feel that their individual performance is unnoticed by others, managers can reduce ———- by holding grout groups and individuals accountable for meeting certain goals.

1. The strong tendency people have to affiliate with others like themselves and conform to the actions of others can lead us to form fairly homogenous groups.

2. Homogeneity in groups can cause the desire to establish and maintain consensus in a group and can lead people to discuss information that all of the participants already possess, a bias that can lead to poorer decisions.

Ex) when doctors meet, they tend to talk more about their shared knowledge than unique experience. This can have bad outcomes for patients.

3. Homogenous groups can be a fertile ground for groupthink.

How can decision making in groups go astray?

group polarization

A tendency for people's attitudes to become more extreme after they discuss an issue with like minded others.

This occurs because 1. Individuals hear new arguments that support their initial attitudes, leading them become more confident that their attitude is justified and 2. A tendency for one-upmanship can lead individuals to hold and express increasingly extreme attitudes as the group defines its norm on one side of the debate

Ex) Conservatives and liberals are more likely to retweet posts from like minded others, which contributes to —————.

groupthink

A form of biased group decision making whereby pressure to achieve consensus leads members of the group to avoid voicing unpopular suggestions

This is exacerbated by having a dominant and authoritarian leader who voices strong opinions for what the group's decision should be

Altering the legitimacy of the authority figure

Obedience to authority can be change by

theory of planned behavior

People's intentions are good predictors of our behaviors.

Our attitudes (how we feel), subjective norms (how other people feel), and perceived efficacy (how successful will be we), are good predictors of our intentions

Ex) attitude: I want to limit my screen time

Ex) Covid-19 prevention
Attitude: I think wearing a mask is the right thing to do
Subjective norms: other people think it's important to wear a mask
Perceived efficacy: I am confident I can wear a mask in public
Intention: I plan to weak a mask in public
Behavior: wearing a mask in public

Peer pressure

Why do people conform to social norms?

1. Normative influence: the goal is acceptance

2. Informational influence: the goal is accuracy. Other people are a good source of insight about the world.

3. Shared identity: the goal is to embody who we are and who we are not. Within our groups, we want to represent our groups by confirming to their characteristics.

Forms of social influence

social contagion

People within the same group conform to the same ideas. But these ideas rarely spread between different groups.

Ex) Democrats have embraced mask wearing. In response to this, Republicans have rejected this norm to differentiate themselves from the left.

In some cases however, people conform to the norms of other groups to fit into that group

Ex) People dress like a manager in hopes to become a manager

In counties where people voted for Trump in 2016, cell phone signals indicated that individuals were more likely to move around and not social distance. This led to increased infection and increased deaths.

This behavior is bounded by social norms of a group.

Partisan differences in physical distancing are linked to health outcomes during COVID-19 pandemic. Explain.

informational influence

Participants in a study were shown a series of two images and they had to say whether the images could be rotated to be the same. With each image, the participants were shown a pie chart that showed which percent of other participants picked yes vs no. By seeing this information, participants were influenced to pick the answer that others did.

They were more likely to pick the correct answer when everyone else did and more likely to pick the wrong answer when everyone else did.

shared reality

As people within a group influence each other's beliefs, the members of the group all begin to understand things in a similar way.

Ex) Democrats and Republicans have different understandings of things. This is worsened by social media echo chambers. People only listen to and communicate with people of their same group. For example, liberals tend to retweet mostly liberals and republicans tend to retweet mostly republicans. In this study, people are most likely to retweet tweets that have moral emotional words like "hate" or "disgusting" in them than simply moral words.

Normative influence causes compliance. Your attitude doesn't change.

Informational influence causes attitude change.

What do normative influence and informational influence cause?

...

In an experiment, participants are told they have to admit a test to another learner in another room. For every wrong answer the learner gives, the participant has to admit a shock to the learner in the other room. Every time the learner gets something wrong, the level of the shock gets higher and higher. As this happens, the participant can hear the cries of the learner in the other room. The learner is actually an actor and nobody gets shocked. Over time, the cries of the learner gets louder and louder until they go silent Liz They even complain about their heart hurting. Despite these cries, the experimenter tells the participant to continue.

63% of the participants obeyed the orders of the experimenter to the end and gave the highest shocks to the point where the learner screamed out in pain and stopped responding.

The only thing that reduced people from going to the very end is admiring the shock directly to the learner while the learner was present.

attitude

A predisposition or tendency to respond positively or negatively towards a certain idea, object, person, or situation. This influences an individual's choice of action, and response to challenges, incentives, and rewards.

Source —— message —- audience

Track of persuasion

cognitive dissonance

Ex1) People smoke. Most people in the 21st century know that smoking is bad but still do it. This creates a state of ———. To reduce this bad feeling, they could shift their attitudes about smoking. They start to think that smoking is not as bad as people say.

Ex2) Most people have positive attitudes about wearing masks, but sometimes they don't. This creates a state of ———-. To reduce this bad feeling, they start to think, "Maybe masks aren't that effective anyway".

What is the difference between social psychology and personality psychology?

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