Which assessment data support the diagnosis of obsessive compulsive disorder

The current chapter reviews assessment of anxiety disorders and obsessive-compulsive disorder in adults for answering clinical questions about diagnosis and severity of the anxiety disorder; case formulation and treatment planning; monitoring of progress throughout treatment; and measurement of treatment outcome. Evidence-based assessment of adult anxiety disorders includes the use of semi-structured diagnostic interviews, self-report measures (questionnaires), clinician-rated measures, and behavioral assessment techniques. The current chapter necessarily reviews only the most prominent tools used for assessment of adult anxiety disorders. For each anxiety disorder discussed in this chapter, we review assessment methods and recommend an assessment battery that would include a structured diagnostic interview, a brief measure of severity that can be administered throughout treatment to monitor progress, and a selection of measures (e.g., a self-report measure and a behavioral assessment) that allows for case formulation and tailoring of evidence-based treatment to the client’s individual needs.

Information

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2019

Access options

References

Abramowitz, J. S. (2018). Presidential address: Are the obsessive-compulsive related disorders related to obsessive-compulsive disorder? A critical look at DSM-5’s new category. Behavior Therapy, 49, 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA, American Psychiatric Association.

Antony, M. M., Bieling, P. J., Cox, B. J., Enns, M. W., & Swinson, R. P. (1998). Psychometric properties of the 42-item and 21-item versions of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) in clinical groups and a community sample. Psychological Assessment, 10, 176–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Antony, M. M., Ledley, D. R., Liss, A., & Swinson, R. P. (2006). Responses to symptom induction exercises in panic disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 85–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Asnaani, A., Aderka, I. M., Marques, L., Simon, N., Robinaugh, D. J., & Hofmann, S. G. (2015). The structure of feared social situations among race-ethnic minorities and Whites with social anxiety disorder in the United States. Transcultural Psychiatry, 52, 791–807.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Asnaani, A., Richey, J. A., Dimaite, R., Hinton, D. E., & Hofmann, S. G. (2010). A cross-ethnic comparison of lifetime prevalence rates of anxiety disorders. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 198, 551–555.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Baker, S. L., Heinrichs, N., Kim, H.-J., & Hofmann, S. G. (2002). The Liebowitz social anxiety scale as a self-report instrument: A preliminary psychometric analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40 (6), 701–715.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Bardhoshi, G., Duncan, K., & Erford, B.T. (2016). Psychometric meta-analysis of the English version of the Beck Anxiety Inventory. Journal of Counseling and Development, 94, 356–373.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Barlow, D. H., Hayes, S. C., & Nelson, R. O. (1984). The scientist-practitioner: Research and accountability in clinical and educational settings. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.Google Scholar

Baxter, A. J., Scott, K. M., Vos, T., & Whiteford, H. A. (2012). Global prevalence of anxiety disorders: a systematic review and meta-regression. Psychological Medicine, 43, 897–910.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Baxter, A. J., Vos, T., Scott, K. M., Ferrari, A. J., & Whiteford, H. A. (2014). The global burden of anxiety disorders in 2010. Psychological Medicine, 44, 2363–2374.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 893–897.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Behar, E., DiMarco, I. D., Hekler, E. B., Mohlman, J., & Staples, A. M. (2009). Current theoretical models of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD): Conceptual review and treatment implications. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23, 1011–1023.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Brown, T. A., Antony, M. M., & Barlow, D. H. (1992). Psychometric properties of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire in a clinical anxiety disorders sample. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 30, 33–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brown, T. A. & Barlow, D. H. (2014). Anxiety and Related Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-5 (ADIS-5) – Adults and Lifetime Version: Clinician Manual. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Brown, T. A., Chorpita, B. F., Korotitsch, W., & Barlow, D. H. (1997). Psychometric properties of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) in clinical samples. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 79–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brown, T. A., Di Nardo, P. A., Lehman, C. L., & Campbell, L. A. (2001). Reliability of DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders: Implications for the classification of emotional disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 49–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Buhr, K., & Dugas, M. J. (2002). The intolerance of uncertainty scale: Psychometric properties of the English version. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 931–945.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Carleton, R. N., Collimore, K. C., Asmundson, G. J. G., McCabe, R. E., Rowa, K., & Antony, M. M. (2009). Refining and validating the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale and the Social Phobia Scale. Depression and Anxiety, 26, E71–E81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Carleton, R. N., Thibodeau, M. A., Weeks, J. W., Sapach, M. J. N. T., McEvoy, P. M., Horswill, S. C., & Heimberg, R. G. (2014). Comparing short forms of the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale and the Social Phobia Scale. Psychological Assessment, 26 (4), 1116–1126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Carlson, E. B., Field, N. P., Ruzek, J. I., Bryant, R. A., Dalenberg, C. J., Keane, T. M., & Spain, D. A. (2016). Advantages and psychometric validation of proximal intensive assessments of patient-reported outcomes collected in daily life. Quality of Life Research, 25, 507–516.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Chambless, D. L., Caputo, G. C., Bright, P., & Gallagher., R. (1984). Assessment of fear of fear on agoraphobics: the body sensations questionnaire and the agoraphobic cognitions questionnaire. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 1090–1097.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Chambless, D. L., Caputo, G. C., Jasin, S. L., Gracely, E. I, & Williams, C. (1985). The mobility inventory for agoraphobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 23, 35–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Chambless, D. L., Sharpless, B. A., Rodriguez, D., McCarthy, K. S., Milrod, B. L., Khalsa, S. R., & Barber, J. P. (2011). Psychometric properties of the Mobility Inventory for Agoraphobia: Convergent, discriminant, and criterion-related validity. Behavior Therapy, 42, 689–699.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Chmielewski, M., Clark, L. A., Bagby, R. M., & Watson, D. (2015). Method matters: Understanding diagnostic reliability in DSM-IV and DSM-5. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124, 764–769.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Clark, D. M., & Wells, A. (1995). A cognitive model of social phobia. In Heimberg, R. G., Liebowitz, M. R., Hope, D. A., & Schneier, F. R. (Eds.), Social Phobia: Diagnosis, assessment and treatment (pp. 69–93). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar

Contreras, S., Fernandez, S., Malcarne, V. L., Ingram, R. E., Vaccarino, V. R. (2004). Reliability and validity of the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories in Caucasian Americans and Latinos. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 26, 446–462.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cuming, S., Rapee, R. M., Kemp, N., Abbott, M. J., Peters, L., & Gaston, J. E. (2009). A self-report measure of subtle avoidance and safety behaviors relevant to social anxiety: Development and psychometric properties. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23, 879–883.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Dear, B. F., Titov, N., Sunderland, M., McMillan, D., Anderson, T., Lorian, C., & Robinson, E. (2011). Psychometric comparison of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale-7 and the Penn State Worry Questionnaire for measuring response during treatment of Generalised Anxiety Disorder. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 40, 216–227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

First, M. B., Williams, J. B. W., Karg, R. S., & Spitzer, R. L. (2016). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 Disorders – Clinician Version (SCID-5-CV). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association Publishing.Google Scholar

Foa, E. B., Huppert, J. D., Leiberg, S., Langner, R., Kichic, R., Hajcak, G., & Salkovskis, P. M. (2002). The Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory: Development and validation of a short version. Psychological Assessment, 14, 485–496.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Foa, E. B., Kozak, M. J., Salkovskis, P. M., Coles, M. E., & Amir, N. (1998) The validation of a new Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder scale: The Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory. Psychological Assessment, 10, 206–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fresco, D. M., Coles, M. E., Heimberg, R. G., Liebowitz, M. R., Hami, S., Stein, M. B., & Goetz, D. (2001). The Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale: A Comparison of the psychometric properties of self-report and clinician-administered formats. Psychological Medicine, 31, 1025–1035.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Furukawa, T. A., Shear, M. K., Barlow, D. H., Gorman, J. M., Woods, S. W., Money, R., Etschel, E., Engel, R. R., & Leucht, S. (2009). Evidence-based guidelines for interpretation of the Panic Disorder Severity Scale. Depression and Anxiety, 26, 922–929.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Goodman, W. K., Price, L. H., Rasmussen, S. A., Mazure, C., Delgado, P., Heninger, G. R., & Charney, D.S. (1989a). The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale: II. Validity. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 1012–1016.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Goodman, W. K., Price, L. H., Rasmussen, S. A., Mazure, C., Fleischmann, R. L., Hill, C. L., Heninger, G. R., & Charney, D. S. (1989b). The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale: I. Development, use, and reliability. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 1006–1011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Gros, D. F., & Sarver, N. W. (2014). An investigation of the psychometric properties of the Social Thoughts and Beliefs Scale (STABS) and structure of cognitive symptoms in participants with social anxiety disorder and healthy controls. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 28, 283–290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Heimberg, R. G., Horner, K. J., Juster, H. R., Safren, S. A., Brown, E. J., Schneier, F. R., & Liebowitz, M. R. (1999). Psychometric properties of the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale. Psychological Medicine, 29, 199–212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hofman, S. G., & Smits, J. A. J. (2008). Cognitive–behavioral therapy for adult anxiety disorders: A meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 69, 621–632.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Houck, P. R., Spiegel, D. A., Shear, M. K., & Rucci, P. (2002). Reliability of the self-report version of the Panic Disorder Severity Scale. Depression and Anxiety, 15, 183–185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Kertz, S., Bigda-Peyton, J., Bjorgvinsson, T. (2013). Validity of the Generalised Anxiety Disorder-7 scale in an acute psychiatric sample. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 20 (5), 456–464.Google Scholar

Leary, M. R. (1983). A brief version of the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9, 371–375.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lees-Haley, P. R., & Dunn, J. T. (1994). The ability of naïve subjects to report symptoms of mild brain injury, post-traumatic stress disorders, major depression, and generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 50, 252–256.3.0.CO;2-T>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Lindner, P., Martell, C., Bergström, J., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2013). Clinical validation of a non-heteronormative version of the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS). Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 11, 209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of the negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 335–343.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Mattick, R. P., & Clarke, J. C. (1998). Development and validation of measures of social phobia scrutiny fear and social interaction anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 455–470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Mattick, R. P., & Peters, L. (1988). Treatment of severe social phobia: Effects of guided exposure with and without cognitive restructuring. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 251–260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Mattick, R. P., Peters, L., & Clarke, J. C. (1989). Exposure and cognitive restructuring for severe social phobia: A controlled study. Behavior Therapy, 20, 3–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

McEvoy, P. M., Grove, R., & Slade, T. (2011). Epidemiology of anxiety disorders in the Australian general population: Findings of the 2007 Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 45, 957–967.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

McEvoy, P. M., & Mahoney, A. E. J. (2011). Achieving certainty about the structure of the intolerance of uncertainty in a treatment-seeking sample with anxiety and depression. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25, 112–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Meyer, T. L., Miller., M. L., & Borkovec., T. D. (1990). Development and validation of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28, 487–495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Moritz, S., Van Quaquebeke, N., Hauschildt, M., Jelinek, L., & Gonner, S. (2012). Good news for allegedly bad studies. Assessment of psychometric properties may help to elucidate deception in online studies on OCD. Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders, 1, 331–335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group. (2001). Development and initial validation of the obsessive beliefs questionnaire and the interpretation of intrusions inventory. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 987–1006.CrossRef

Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group. (2003). Psychometric validation of the Obsessive Beliefs Questionnaire and the Interpretation of Intrusions Inventory: Part 1. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 863–878.CrossRef

Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group. (2005). Psychometric validation of the Obsessive Beliefs Questionnaire and the Interpretation of Intrusions Inventory: Part 2: Factor analyses and testing of a brief version. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 1527–1542.CrossRef

Oei, T. P. S., Sawang, S., Goh, Y. W., & Mukhtar, F. (2013). Using the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale 21 (DASS-21) across cultures. International Journal of Psychology, 48, 1018–1029.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Parkerson, H. A., Thibodeau, M. A., Brandt, C. P., Zvolensky, M. J., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2015). Cultural-based biases of the GAD-7. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 31, 38–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Pearl, S. B., & Norton, P. J. (2017). Transdiagnostic versus diagnostic specific cognitive behavioural therapies for anxiety: A meta-analysis. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 46, 11–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Persons, J. B. (2006). Case formulation-driven psychotherapy. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 13(2), 167–170.Google Scholar

Persons, J. B. (2013). Who needs a case formulation and why: Clinicians use the case formulation to guide decision-making. Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy, 9(4), 448–156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Peters, L. (2000). Discriminant validity of the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI), the Social Phobia Scale (SPS) and the Social Inter- action Anxiety Scale (SIAS). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 943–950.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Peters, L., Sunderland, M., Andrews, G., Rapee, R. M., & Mattick, R. P. (2012). Development of a Short Form Social Interaction Anxiety (SIAS) and Social Phobia Scale (SPS) using Nonparametric Item Response Theory: the SIAS-6 and the SPS-6. Psychological Assessment, 24(1), 66–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Piccirillo, M. L., Dryman, M. T., & Heimberg, R. G. (2016). Safety behaviors in adults with social anxiety: Review and future directions. Behavior Therapy, 47, 675–687.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Plummer, F., Manea, L., Trepel, D., & McMillan, D. (2016). Screening for anxiety disorders with the GAD-7 and GAD-2: a systematic review and diagnostic metaanalysis. General Hospital Psychiatry, 39, 24–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Rapee, R. M., & Heimberg, R. G. (1997). A cognitive-behavioral model of anxiety in social phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 741–756.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Reiss, S., Peterson, R. A., Gursky, D. M., & McNally, R. J. (1986). Anxiety sensitivity, anxiety frequency, and the prediction of fearfulness. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 24, 1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ries, B. J., McNeil, D. W., Boone, M. L., Turk, C. L., Carter, L. E., & Heimberg, R. G. (1998). Assessment of contemporary social phobia verbal report instruments. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 983–994.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Rodebaugh, T. L., Heimberg, R. G., Brown, P. J., Fernandez, K. C., Blanco, C., Schneier, F. R., & Liebowitz, M. R. (2011). More reasons to be straightforward: Findings and norms for two scales relevant to social anxiety. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25, 623–630.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Rogers, R., Ornduff, S. R., & Sewell, K. W. (1993). Feigning specific disorders: A study of the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI). Journal of Personality Assessment, 60, 554–560.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Schneider, S., Margraf, J., Spoerkel, H., & Franzen, U. (1992). Therapy-related diagnosis: Reliability of the Diagnostic Interview for Mental Disorders (DIMD). Diagnostica, 38, 209–227.Google Scholar

Shankman, S. A., Funkhouser, C. J., Klein, D. N., Davila, J., Lerner, D., & Hee, D. (2018). Reliability and validity of severity dimensions of psychopathology assessed using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 27, e1590.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Shear, M. K., Brown, T. A., Barlow, D. H., Money, R., Sholomskas, D. E., Woods, S. W., Gorman, J. M., & Papp, L. A. (1997). Multicenter collaborative Panic Disorder Severity Scale. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1571–1575.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Shulman, G. P., & Hope, D. A. (2016). Putting our multicultural training into practice: Assessing social anxiety disorder in sexual minorities. The Behavior Therapist, 39, 315–319.Google Scholar

Spitzer, R. L. Kroenke, K., Williams, J. B. W., & Löwe, B. (2006). A brief measure for assessing Generalised Anxiety Disorder: The GAD-7. Archives of Internal Medicine, 166, 1092–1097.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Stein, J., Modini, M., Hunt, C., & Abbott, M. J. (2017). A systematic review of the psychometric properties of trait cognitive self-report measures in social anxiety. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioural Assessment, 39, 147–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Storch, E. A., Rasmussen, S. A., Price, L. H., Larson, M. J., Murphy, T. K., & Goodman, W. K. (2010). Development and psychometric evaluation of the Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale – Second edition. Psychological Assessment, 22, 223–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Taylor, S., Abramowitz, J. S., McKay, D. (2007). Cognitive-behavioural models of obsessive-compulsive disorder. In Antony, M. M., Purdon, C., & Summerfeldt, L. J. (Eds.). Psychological treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: Fundamentals and beyond (pp. 9–29). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Taylor, S., & Cox, B. J. (1998). An expanded Anxiety Sensitivity Index: Evidence for a hierarchic structure in a clinical sample. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 12, 463–483.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Turner, S. M., Johnson, M. R., Beidel, D. C., Heiser, N. A., & Lydiard, R. B. (2003). The Social Thoughts and Beliefs Scale: A new inventory for assessing cognitions in social phobia. Psychological Assessment, 15, 384–391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Turner, S. M., McCanna, M., & Beidel, D. C. (1987). Validity of the social avoidance and distress and fear of negative evaluation scales. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 25, 113–115.Google ScholarPubMed

Watson, D., & Friend, R. (1969). Measurement of social-evaluative anxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33, 448–457.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Weiss, B. J., Hope, D. A., & Capozzolo, M. C. (2013). Heterocentric language in commonly used measures of social anxiety: Recommended alternate wording. Behavior Therapy, 44, 1–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Wells, A., & Cartwright-Hatton, S. (2003). A short form of the metacognitions questionnaire: Properties of the MCQ-30. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 385–396.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Williams, M., Davis, D. M., Thibodeau, M. A., & Bach, N. (2013). Psychometric properties of the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory revised in African Americans with and without obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders, 2, 399–405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Woody, S. T., Steketee, G., & Chambless, D. L. (1995). Reliability and validity of the Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 597–605.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Wong, Q. J. J., Chen, J., Gregory, B., Baillie, A. J., Nagata, T., Furukawa, T. A., Kaiya, H., Peters, L., & Rapee, R. M. (2019). Measurement equivalence of the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS) and the Social Phobia Scale (SPS) across individuals with social anxiety disorder from Japanese and Australian sociocultural contexts. Journal of Affective Disorders, 243, 165–174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Wu, M. S., McGuire, J. F., Horng, B., Storch, E. A. (2016). Further psychometric properties of the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale – Second Edition. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 66, 96–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Wuyek, L. A., Antony, M. M., & McCabe, R. E. (2011). Psychometric properties of the Panic Disorder Severity Scale: Clinician-administered and self-report versions. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 18, 234–243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Zvolensky, M. J., Arrindell, W. A., Taylor, S., Bouvard, M., Cox, B. J., Stewart, S. H., Sandin, B., Cardenas, S. J., & Eifert, G. H. (2003). Anxiety sensitivity in six countries. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 841–859.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

What assessments are used to diagnose OCD?

How is OCD diagnosed in DSM